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CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
SUMMARY x-xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii-xiii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-39
1.1 General 1
1.2 Tiger in the Human Cultures 3
1.3 Study Species: Tiger Panthera tigris 6
1.3.1 Origin 6
1.3.2 Taxonomy 8
1.3.3 Distribution 9
1.3.3.1 Global Distribution 9
1.3.3.2 Distribution in Bangladesh 10
1.3.4 Population Density 14
1.3.4.1 Global Population Density 14
1.3.4.2 Population Density in Bangladesh 17
1.3.5 Morphology 18
1.3.6 Biology 20
1.3.7 Ecology and Behaviour 21
1.3.8 Threats 26
1.3.8.1 Illegal Hunting and Poaching 27
1.3.8.2 Prey Depletion 29
1.3.8.3 Habitat Loss, Degradation and Fragmentation 30
1.3.8.4 Weak Law Enforcement 31
1.3.8.5 Inbreeding and Genetic Threat 31
1.3.8.6 Natural Disaster 32
1.3.9 Conservation 32
1.3.9.1 Global Conservation Efforts 32
1.3.9.2 Conservation Efforts in Bangladesh 35
1.4 Need and Objectives of This Research 37
1.4.1 Need of This Research 37
1.4.2 Objectives 39
CHAPTER 2 STUDY AREA AND GENERAL METHODS 40-71
2.1 Study Area 40
2.1.1 Introduction 40
2.1.2 Bangladesh 40
2.1.3 Sundarbans 44
2.1.3.1 Climate 49
2.1.3.2 Biodiversity 51
2.1.3.3 Flagship and Threatened Species 54
2.1.3.4 Human Life 56
2.1.3.5 Threats 57
2.1.3.6 Conservation 60 vi
2.2 General Methods 63
2.2.1 Introduction 63
2.2.2 Logistic Setup 63
2.2.3 Research Team Formation 64
2.2.4 Reconnaissance Survey 65
2.2.5 Work Schedule 66
2.2.6 Data Collection 68
2.2.6.1 Line-transect Sampling for Prey 68
2.2.6.2 Scat Analysis and Kill Study 68
2.2.6.3 Line-transect Sampling for Tiger Signs 69
2.2.6.4 Male-female and Mother-cub(s) Observations 69
2.2.6.5 Interviewing, Forest Department Records and
Newspaper Reports; Protein Intake Survey 70
2.2.7 Data Analysis 70
CHAPTER 3 PREY POPULATION STRUCTURE AND DENSITY 72-97
3.1 Introduction 72
3.2 Methods 73
3.2.1 Prey Grouping Tendencies, Age-sex Classes,
Group Size, Group Density and Individual Density 73
3.2.2 Prey Biomass Density 77
3.2.3 Tiger Density 78
3.3 Results 79
3.3.1 Prey Grouping Tendencies 79
3.3.2 Prey Age-sex Classes 80
3.3.3 Prey Group Size, Group Density and Individual 81
3.3.4 Prey Biomass Density 83
3.3.5 Tiger Density 85
3.4 Discussion 85
3.4.1 Prey Grouping Tendencies 85
3.4.2 Prey Age-sex Classes 87
3.4.3 Dominant Prey Species 88
3.4.4 Comparison of Prey Density in Some Tiger Ranges 89
3.4.5 Comparison of Prey Density Estimates in the
Bangladesh Sundarbans 91
3.4.6 Correlation Between Prey Density and Tiger Density 93
3.4.7 Comparison of Tiger Density Estimates in the
Bangladesh Sundarbans 94
3.5 Summary 96
CHAPTER 4 PREY SELECTION 98-123
4.1 Introduction 98
4.2 Methods 99
4.2.1 Scat Analysis 99
4.2.2 Prey Selectivity Index 102
4.2.3 Kill Study 102 vii
4.3 Results 103
4.3.1 Scat Volume and Weight, and Minimum Sample Size 103
4.3.2 Prey Selection 105
4.3.3 Non-food Items in Scats 108
4.3.4 Prey Abundance Versus Prey Selection 109
4.3.5 Age and Health of Kills 111
4.3.6 Abundance and Selection of Spotted Deer
in Different Age Classes 112
4.4 Discussion 113
4.4.1 Prey Selection 113
4.4.2 Non-food Items in Scats 118
4.4.3 Prey Abundance Versus Prey Selection 119
4.4.4 Selectivity for Age-sex Classes 121
4.5 Summary 122
CHAPTER 5 RELATIVE HABITAT USE 124-142
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Methods 126
5.3 Results 130
5.3.1 Relative Habitat Use 130
5.3.2 Scratches on Different Tree Species 137
5.4 Discussion 138
5.4.1 Relative Habitat Use 138
5.4.2 Scratches on Different Tree Species 140
5.5 Summary 141
CHAPTER 6 BREEDING AND LITTER SIZE 143-153
6.1 Introduction 143
6.2 Methods 144
6.3 Results 147
6.4 Discussion 149
6.5 Summary 153
CHAPTER 7 TIGER-HUMAN INTERACTIONS 154-189
7.1 Introduction 154
7.2 Methods 156
7.2.1 Interviewing Local People, Newspaper Reports and
Forest Department Records 156
7.2.2 Consumption of Tiger Prey by Local People 158
7.3 Results 159
7.3.1 Interviewing Local People, Newspaper Reports and
Forest Department Records 159
7.3.1.1 Tigers Killed by People 159
7.3.1.2 People Killed or Injured by Tigers 164
7.3.1.3 Protection From the Tiger 167
7.3.1.4 Where Do People See the Tiger? 169
7.3.1.5 Condition of Sighted Wild Tigers 170
7.3.1.6 Public Knowledge on
Bangladesh Wildlife Act 1974 170 viii
7.3.1.7 Public Belief on the Medicinal Use of
Tiger Parts 171
7.3.1.8 Public Opinion on Tiger Conservation 171
7.3.2 Consumption of Tiger Prey by Local People 172
7.4 Discussion 176
7.4.1 Tigers Killed by People 176
7.4.2 People Killed or Injured by Tigers 179
7.4.3 Public Knowledge and Belief 185
7.4.4 Consumption of Tiger Prey by Local People 186
7.5 Summary 188
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION 190-199
8.1 Introduction 190
8.2 Conclusions 190
8.2.1 Prey Population Structure and Density 190
8.2.2 Prey Selection 192
8.2.3 Relative Habitat Use 192
8.2.4 Breeding and Litter Size 193
8.2.5 Tiger-human Interactions 193
8.2.6 Comparative Issues 195
8.3 Conservation Implications 195
8.4 Future Research 198
REFERENCES 200-236
APPENDICES 237-297
Appendix I Status and distribution of wild cats and primates in Bangladesh. 237
Appendix II Food habit of the leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis in the
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary of Bangladesh. 250
Appendix III An article entitled ‘The Sundarbans’. 255
Appendix IV An article entitled ‘Mysterious Tigers of the Sundarbans’. 263
Appendix V Tiger sightings during fieldwork (September 2001-
February 2003) in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary. 267
Appendix VI The birds of the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary
of Bangladesh. 271
Appendix VII List of some common plants of the Sundarbans. 289
Appendix VIII List of amphibians, reptiles and mammals recorded during
the fieldwork (September 2001-February 2003) in the
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, together with their
respective status and primary habitat 291
Appendix IX The occurrence of an ‘extinct’ hog deer in Bangladesh. 294
Appendix X A sample of interview sheet, similar to one in Bengali
used in the Sundarbans and adjacent areas in order to
interview local people and record information on
different aspects of tiger-human interactions. 296
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